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Research Report Contents
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A project facilitated by the Research and Development Group of the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association. An Adobe Acrobat file (.pdf) of the complete report is available Here
(595 KB)
Appendix 1: A Tabular Model of Ecological Succession of the Autogenic, Autotrophic Type
Adapted from Odum, (1997)
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Appendix 2: Paradigm Shift in Soil Science and Soil Management Until recently, the emphasis in (soil) science and farming methods was on component research leading to materialistic, reductionistic, specialist approaches, but views are changing about soil science and soil management. The characteristics of this (technological) approach are compared with those of an ecological approach in Table 2, below. The table is a polarizing generalization but it shows paradigm shift, with an increasing trend in both soil science and soil management towards the ecological view. Table 2. Generalized description of characteristics and views on soils: technological versus ecological technological view (EXTREME) ecological view (EXTREME).
Appendix 3: Composting and Maintenance of Soil Fertility and Structure Maintenance of the organic matter content of the soil is crucial for all sustainable farming including orchards and dairy farms. Fresh organic matter added to the soil is easily degraded by soil biological activity. The end product of organic matter breakdown is stable humus. This process is always dependent on the matter from which it is broken down, the environmental conditions under which it is processed and the microbes involved in the decomposition. This decomposition process can be managed by composting. Compost and humus have the potential to provide a sustainable basis for primary production that will lead to an optimum production system especially on marginal soils. Addition of compost has the following effects:
Compost quality depends on the composting materials, method and conditions. The ratio of carbon to nitrogen (C/N ratio) affects the process and product. The end product can serve different purposes depending on the requirements of the crop and/or soil. Table 1: Organic matter (adapted from v.d. Werff (1992)
Fresh organic matter has a breakdown rate of 50–80% after the first year of application. Stable humus breaks down much more slowly –2-5% a year. This means that fresh organic matter contributes to the nutrient availability and the moisture availability of the soil but does little to improve the structure of the soil. Next to the breakdown and synthesis of organic compounds there is the sanitary effect of composting. For this aspect, relatively high temperatures and the length of time of composting are important. Most weed seeds, fungi spores and bacteria are killed at a temperature of 55–60o Celsius. Long term composting leads to the destruction of weed seeds and pathogens by antibiotics and other physiological/biotic substances. This can be of major importance with horticultural wastes and weeding wastes. However, there are also advocates (Viktor Schauberger:The Fertile Earth (translated by Calum Coats) of the cold composting process, which favours different organisms, such as worms. Length of time, the temperature of composting, and the C/N ratio of the original material are the main factors influencing the outcome. Starting with organic matter that has an average C/N ratio of 33/1 makes it theoretically possible to capture all the nitrogen from the organic matter without loss to the air, as sufficient C is available to supply maintenance and growth and reproduction for micro-organisms. A C/N ratio lower than 33/1 increases nitrogen losses to the environment. Research is underway in Europe comparing the effectiveness of various compost coverings to prevent nitrogen losses. Since air, water, neutral pH, temperature and food supply (C/N ratio) are important to composting (micro) organisms, these should be managed appropriately. For instance, high moisture contents create anaerobic conditions, stimulating anaerobe micro-organisms. The by-products of anaerobic decomposition are (if excessive) toxic to crop plants. All these contributing factors make composting a science as much as an art. The quality of the compost depends on how the composting process has been managed. Different degrees of maturity of compost fulfil different purposes in the soil. For example, applying mature compost leads to better soil structure and disease suppression. Various guides to assess the quality of compost have been developed; an inexpensive and practical method is provided in the Composter’s Manual by E. Pfeiffer. Several methods of compost making (worm, Indora, Luebke or CMC, sheet, biodynamic etc.) are being researched. A further area of research examines the effects of adding minerals such as rock dust, lime, clay, rock phosphate to the compost heap rather than directly on the land. Various inoculants (starters), including the biodynamic compost preparations are also being researched. Koepf, Schaumann, Pettersson, (1984). Biologisch-dynamische land- en tuinbouw, Vrij Geestesleven, Zeist. van der Werf, P A (1992). Toegepaste bodemecologie in de alternatieve landbouw, Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen. Gottschall, R (1984). Kompostierung; optimale aufbereitung und verwendung organischer materialen im oekologischen landbau, Alternative konzepte vol. 45, C. F. Mueller, Karlsruhe. Kompost eren door komposteren, van Steensel, F (1992). B.Sc. thesis, IAH Larestein, Deventer. Composter’s Manual, E. Pfeiffer, The Pfeiffer Foundation Inc., Spring Valley, NY.
Appendix 4: Books On Biodynamic Farming A vast quantity of useful practical information on organic and biodynamic farming practices can be found in books and magazines over the last century. Much of this literature is now out of print and hard to obtain, but the Bio-Dynamic Association and the Soil and Health Association hold valuable collections. Several books on biodynamic farming and growing are listed in the booklist at the end of this appendix. Useful books on practical farming include Bio-dynamic Agriculture by Koepf, Petterson and Schaumann and books by Ehrenfried Pfeiffer such as Soil Fertility and Renewal. New Zealand books include Biodynamics and Biodynamic Perspectives by the Bio-Dynamic Association and "Grasp the Nettle" by Peter Proctor. Agriculture of Tomorrow by E and L Kolisko provides interesting accounts of early research into the biodynamic preparations and other aspects of biodynamics. This and one of Pfeiffer’s books are reviewed below, by Peter Bacchus, A Practical Guide to the Biodynamic Preparations — by Ehrenfried Pfeiffer This small book gives a good practical overview of how to construct a compost or a manure heap and how to apply the compost preparations to it. A chapter is given to the environmental consideration of moisture. The balance of air to moisture is vital to a successful process of decomposition. In New Zealand the lack of water in summer is also a challenge. Pfeiffer recommended covering heaps with soil or clay to reduce losses of nitrogen. A chapter discusses the biodynamic field sprays made from cow manure in the shell of a cow's horn (buried during the winter) and very finely ground quartz inserted in a cow's horn (buried during the summer months). This book does not take into account the modern mechanical aids that we now have but the principles remain the same. Other chapters deal with the principles of the biodynamic method in orchards, and farm conversion to the biodynamic method. The final chapter addresses the issues of monoculture and its effects on the environment in comparison with the fully mixed environment with, for example, trees, woodlands, cropping and pasture diversity, whether animals should have access to eat or totally destroy any shrub they can eat, or whether they have enough shade or shelter during extreme weather conditions (hot, cold, wet, windy). Pfeiffer, a practicing biochemist, had strong connections with the medical profession. Most of the time he was a practical farmer, which allowed him to speak with authority. He wrote many books, always sensible and practical. Any book by this author is good value for those interested in the organic approach and the practical application of the biodynamic method. Pfeiffer became particularly noted for his compost starter. Further work on these starters in the US (Josephine Porter Institute) and Europe (Luebke or CMC composting) led to commercially developed products. Dr Pfeiffer later gave a comprehensive series of lectures on nutrition that are recorded on tapes distributed by Acres USA. Agriculture of Tomorrow — by Eugene and Lilly Kolisko First published 1938, currently out of print. This book describes the research work of the Koliskos, inspired by Dr Rudolf Steiner in 1919, nd begun in 1920. In an attempt to provide a scientific basis for certain biodynamic methods they research indications from Steiner. They took the first steps on the developmental road to a "living science". As such this book reveals a less ‘material world’ operating behind the scenes and attempts to quantify it. Different environmental aspects and various homeoepathic dilutions were researched to understand their influence on plant growth and development. For example, they studied the metals that relate to the sun, moon and the visible planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Tin, one of the metals related Jupiter, was studied in great detail using growth studies on sunflowers to show the effects of the different potencies of tin as the 60th potency, with some remarkable results. A biodynamic preparation made from the plant Equisetum avense, horse tail or mares tail is also examined. This was recommended as a remedy for the effects of excessive rain, or moon force on plants. Equisetum has a high proportion of silicic acid and grows as a weed in many parts of northern Europe.
Albrecht, WA. The Albrecht Papers: Vol. I-III. Acres USA: Louisiana Andrews, WA (ed.) A guide to the study of soil ecology. Balfour, EB (1975). Living Soil and the Haughley experiment. London. Carson, R (1961). Silent spring. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, USA. Collins, HP, Robertson, GP et al., (1995). The significance and regulation of soil biodiversity: proceedings of the International Symposium on Soil Biodiversity Dordrecht, Boston. Crossley, DA, Coleman, DC et al., (eds.) (1989). International Workshop on Modern Techniques in Soil Ecology Relevant to Organic Matter Breakdown. University of Georgia: Athens GA. Doran, JW, Jones, AJ (1996). Methods for assessing soil quality. Soil Science Society of America: Madison USA. Giliessman, S (1989). Agroecology: Researching the Ecological Basis for Sustainable Agriculture (introduction). Springer-Verlag: New York. Gregorich, EG, Carter, MR (1997). Soil quality for crop production and ecosystem health. Elsevier: Amstadam. Hills, S, Ott, P (eds.) (1980). The Maintenance of soil fertility: exposes presentes a la 3 eme conference internationale organisee par IFOAM. Bruxelles. Kononova, MM (1966). Soil organic matter: its nature, its role in soil formation and in soil fertility. Pergamon Press: Oxford. Lal, R, Stewart, BA (1994). Soil processes and water quality. Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton. Lefroy, RDB, Blair, GJ, et al., (eds.) (1995). Soil organic matter management for sustainable agriculture: A workshop held in Ubon, Thailand, ACIAR Proceedings: no. 56. Australian Centre of International Agricultural Research: Canberra. Metting, FB (ed.) (1992). Soil microbialecology: applications in agricultural and environmental management. M. Dekker: New York. Molloy, L (1993). Soils in the New Zealand Landscape; the living mantle. New Zealand society of soil science: Canterbury. Pankhurst, CE et al., (eds.) (1994). Soil Biota. CSIRO: Australia. Paul, EA et al., (1997). Soil organic matter in temperate agroecosystems Long-term experiments in North America. CRC Press: Boca Raton. Pierzynski, GM, Sims, JT et al., (2000). Soils and environment quality 2nd Edition. CRC Press: Boca Raton. Pfeiffer, E (1983). Soil fertility; Renewal and Preservation. The Lanthorn Press: Sussex. Pfeiffer, E (1983). The Earth’s face; Landscape & it’s relation to the health of the soil. The Lanthorn Press: Sussex. Rees, RM et al., (eds.) (2000). Sustainable management of soil organic matter. CABI Publishers: New York. Steensel, F (1995). Farm management and soil quality: An investigation into the effects of conventional and organic crop rotation systems on soil quality indicators: A thesis from Massey University. Steiner, R (1924). Spiritual foundations for the renewal of agriculture. A course of eight lectures. Gardner, M (ed) 91993). Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association, USA. Tate, RL (1987). Soil organic matter: biological and ecological effects. Wiley: New York. Tinsley, J, Darbyshire, JF (eds.) (1984). Biological Processes and Soil fertility. M. Nijhoff/W. Junk Publishers: The Hague. Tivy, J (1990). Agricultural Ecology. Longman Scientific and Technical: Harlow, Essex. Vaughan, D, Malcolm, RE (eds.) (1985). Soil organic matter and biological activity. Developments in plant and soil sciences; vol. 16. M. Nijhoff and W. Junk Publishers: Doddrecht, Boston. Voisin, A. Soil, Grass and cancer: the line between human & animal health & the mineral balance of the soil. Acres USA: Louisiana. (1996). Soil Quality indicators for sustainable agriculture in New Zealand: proceedings of a workshop held for MAF Policy. Lincoln Soil Quality Research Centre: Lincoln University.
Appendix 5: Asian Contribution to Sustainable Land Management ome of modern Organics’ earliest champions gleaned their knowledge from Asian sustainable land management systems. Two of the most prominent King and Sir Albert Howard owed much of their knowledge to China, Korea, Japan and India. The oldest known agricultural text is from China. Written in the 1st Century BC, it clearly outlines the breadth and depth of intensive production sustainable systems covering arable, vegetable and animals. Fascination with the sustainable polycultural systems of Asia continued well into the 20th century. Examples include polycultural and agriculture dike pond systems and studies of whole village interactions that combine economic, social and environmental sustainability. The most recent work relating to sustainability and models of Sustainable Land Management Systems comes from an Australian study. Here studies conclude that the: extensive evidence is already present regarding the failure of industrial monoculture approaches to provide for ecological sustainable land use…Since the ecological and physiological processes and theories generally arise from the study of natural ecosystems, polyculture offers an integrating bridge between natural and human systems, conceptually and on the ground. As well, the field offers an effective bridge between ecologists, agronomists and resource managers. Full and extensive literature reviews and co-research is required to learn from and experience the Asian Pacific models of land use sustainability. As the Australian study concludes, one problem facing the actuality of sustainability in the Pacific region, is the need to acknowledge that our current systems, based on European models, are not sustainable. To move from the current model will require extensive cultural shifts but there will be equally extensive information gains.
Agroecosystem A domesticated or harvested ecosystem. Biodynamic (farming and gardening) An organic farming system introduced by Dr Rudolf Steiner. The farm is seen as an ecosystem within a wider system including the universe, but also an entity as distinct in its own right as one human being is from another. Biodynamic farming is also characterised by use of biodynamic preparations and astronomical rhythms. Biodynamic preparations Substances prepared from animal and plant material and used to level of extremes of the growing environment, activate soil biota, for compost making and for plant activity. The principle effects being normalizing, compensating and stimulating. Biodiversity The total taxonomic, functional and genetic variety of life forms supported by an ecosystem. Biomass Total mass of microorganisms and roots alive in a given volume or mass of soil. Biosphere Zone incorporating all forms of life on earth: all the earth’s ecosystems functioning together on a global scale. Bulk density Mass of dry soil per unit soil volume (combined volume of soil solids and pore space). Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) Sum of exchangeable cations a soil can adsorb at a specific pH – influences nutrient availability to plants. or The amount of negative charge that exists on humus and clays allowing them to adsorb cations. Chromatogram In this report, this is a picture formed when a solution of plant or animal material is absorbed by filter paper. Chrystallisation A picture-developing method for studying properties of organic solutions e.g., fruit juices, by adding to CuCl2 solutions and studying the morphology of crystals formed. Ecosphere Term for all the earth’s ecosystems functioning together on a global scale. Ecosystem A discrete unit or community of diverse organisms (includes all species of animals, plants and microorganisms) and the environment in which they live, which interact to form a stable system. Emerging properties Properties resulting from the functional interaction of components and therefore cannot be predicted from the study of components that are isolated or decoupled from the whole unit. Enzymes Proteins within or derived from a living organism that function as catalysts to promote specific biological reactions. Feedback controls Regulating mechanisms whereby the product of a metabolic pathway influences its own production by controlling the amount and/or activity of one of more enzymes involved in the pathway to reach a balance. Food web The feeding relationships of organisms within an ecosystem – a series of interconnecting food chains. Goethean observation or phenomenology A method of close observation to increase understanding of an organism, introduced by Goethe; the interrelationship of the research object and its context Holistic A study or system viewed as a whole, rather than as its component parts. Homeostasis Regulatory mechanisms, for instance, the nervous system, which keep our body temperature constant OR the mechanism that maintains the carbon dioxide-oxygen balance in the atmosphere. Humification A natural process whereby organic residues are transformed and converted to stable humic substances through biochemical and chemical processes. Humus The stable, high molecular weight and colloidal fraction of soil organic matter derived from decomposed plant and animal matter in the soil. Immobilisation Conversion of a plant nutrient from its inorganic to organic form by microbes or plants. Infiltration rate Rate of water entry into the surface layers of soils. Landscape Design of the environment. Mineralisation Conversion of a potential plant nutrient from its organic form to inorganic plant-available form as a result of soil microbial activity. Mulch Any material such as straw or leaves that is spread on the soil surface to protect the soil and plant roots from the effects of raindrops, soil crusting, freezing or water loss by evaporation. Mutualistic Behaviour working together or cooperatively. Nutrient cycling Flow of nutrients through agro-ecosystems. Nutrient sinks or pools Temporarily stored nutrients. Paradigm (scientific) A pattern of thinking that matches accepted theories and scientific practices of the day. Participatory The specific farm is treated as an experimental research station, with flexible, two-way information flow both between farmer-researcher and between farmer-farmer minimises researcher control and maximises farmer intervention in research design. Phenomenology or Goethean science A method of close observation to increase understanding of an organism, introduced by Goethe. Polycultures Growing a wide variety of crops e.g., crop rotation, inter cropping, mixed cropping, etc. Rhizosphere Zone of soil of intense microbiological activity, immediately adjacent to the plant roots, and which receives plant root exudates. r-selection The environment favors species with high reproductive potential. K-selection The environment favors species with lower growth potential but greater capabilities for utilizing scarce resources. Soil biota All living components of the biological community in soils Soil organic matter or SOM Organic fraction of the soil, usually excluding undecayed plant and animal residues System A discrete operational entity that consists of a number of interacting parts, within recognized boundaries Transcending functions What happens at one level affects what happens at another level Understorey Herbage growing under fruit trees in an orchard
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations FiBL Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Switzerland HYDRA Henry Doubleday Research Association, UK IFOAM The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements: the worldwide umbrella organisation of the organic agriculture movement, with about 500 member organisations and institutions in some 95 countries worldwide. One major aim is "to make an international guarantee of organic quality a reality" – the IFOAM Accreditation Programme ensures equivalency of certification programmes worldwide IFP Integrated fruit production – system adopted by many New Zealand apple growers, which combines more benign and biological methods with conventional methods of pest management LBI Louis Bolk Institue – organic research institute in The Netherlands UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
The Funding of this Report The production of this report and catalogue has been supported through funding by the Ministry for the Environment’s Sustainable Management Fund, Dexcel (previously the Dairy Research Corporation), and the Tindall Foundation. Section 6 – Case-Study of New Zealand Dairy Farms in Transition describes a project funded by the Pacific Development Trust . We would particularly like to acknowledge and thank the funding organizations; the assistance provided by the Louis Bolk Institute (The Netherlands); all the contributors who put in more time and effort than remunerated for, the financial management assistance and editorial advice given by David Wright, the Executive Secretary of the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association; the assistance with formatting by Denise Taylor, and editing assistance by Editext, Massey University.
Disclaimer This publication is supported by the Sustainable Management Fund and as such the Ministry for the Environment does not endorse or support the content of this publication in any way. A report and catalogue prepared with funding from the Ministry for the Environment’s Sustainable Management Fund (No. 2191), Dexcel and the Tindall Foundation
Authors: Frank van Steensel MSc Eco-Agri-Logic Phillipa Nicholas PhD Dexcel Hella Bauer-Eden MSc Independent research Gavin Kenny PhD Earthwise Consulting Hugh Campbell PhD University of Otago Margaret Ritchie MSc University of Otago A. Neil Macgregor PhD Massey University Marion Koppenol Bio Dynamic Association Gary Blake MSc Bio Dynamic Association Peter Bacchus Bio Dynamic Association Project leader and main editor: Gill Cole BSc, Bio Dynamic Association Research manager: Frank van Steensel MSc, Bio Dynamic Association Evaluation manager: Gareth Bodle, Bio Dynamic Association Other contributors: Brendon Hoare Artistic design: Chris Elliot Return to top of Appendices Return to Table of Contents
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