Contents
    Summary
    Chapter Two
    Chapter Three
    Chapter Four
    Chapter Five
    Chapter Six
    Chapter Seven
    Chapter Eight
    Chapter Nine
    Chapter Ten
    Appendices    
    Foot Notes  

A project facilitated by the Research and Development Group of the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association

1 Introduction

Interest in organic farming and growing in New Zealand has been increasing, particularly since sizeable opportunities to supply overseas markets with organic produce have become apparent. In 2000, organic production involved between 1-5% of the agricultural sectors of Western countries. The sector was growing at an average of between 25-35% p.a., and average organic price premiums were around 25% (Ritchie et al., 2000). At the same time, domestic consumption of organic food has risen dramatically in New Zealand. Whether producing for the domestic or international market, the numbers of organic farmers in New Zealand have increased rapidly in the last 8 years. Recent Trade New Zealand figures showed that the area of organic production reached 49 000 ha in 2000, an increase of 201% in only 1 year.

Farmers and policy makers have, however, been cautious about embracing organic farming methods. While recent research suggested that many primary producers in New Zealand are thinking about organic production (Cook et al., 2000), few have actually taken the plunge. One reason for this might be the lack of verifiable information both on the potential outcomes and risks and on the technological methods that can be used to make organic growing viable and sustainable. The potential benefits of organic farming to the environment from reduction in harmful agrochemicals can only be realised if farmers have confidence that knowledge of viable systems is available.

This report focuses particularly on soil management as the basis for sustainable farming. The management and research approaches adopted by the organic and conventional sectors are discussed. A successful organic sector needs an awareness and understanding of the whole agro-ecosystem. Most people in the organic sector are part-way along a continuum between input dependent farming and sustainable systems. To achieve an environmentally sustainable system, however, involves redesign of the farming system rather than simply substituting some practices for others (MacRae et al., 1990). Research that will help the organic farmer needs a holistic, ecological approach that complements the analytical research.

The biodynamic farmer aims to balance the relationships between the farm and its environment, (including the whole cosmos); to restore and maintain the vitality and living fertility of soils; and in doing so to produce foods of the highest nutritional quality, based on suggestions by Rudolf Steiner, (1993). The farm is treated as an individual integrated unit in which inputs from off-farm are minimized. A dynamic equilibrium is aimed for, as discussed by Gliessman (1989).

Understanding and describing a new approach to sustainable agriculture has become a global concern. The FAO’s position on Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD), (FAO, 1994) and Agenda 21 of the Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, 1992) illustrate that global awareness of the need to redirect agriculture has reached the highest institutional levels. In Europe, this awareness has been addressed in the design of policy for the management of nature and landscape, often in a rural development context (Baldock and Beaufoy, 1992). In New Zealand, the environmental focus provided by the Resource Management Act 1991 has encouraged the reduction of adverse environmental impacts from agriculture and increased focus on sustainability. However, the majority of the research summarized in this report has been undertaken in Europe (where organic research has received more support than in New Zealand). There is also a growing number of Asian, South American and African researchers developing a whole systems/biological approach to soil science and farm management. As a consequence, there is a rapidly emerging knowledge and experience gap on every level, from technologies through to research and research methodology. Despite the generally overseas provenance of much of the information summarized, there is a small body of New Zealand research that is evident in this report. Mackay et al., (1998) has made a quantitative and structured comparison of conventional and chemical-free pasture-based mixed livestock production systems in New Zealand.

Aims and Target Audience

The aim of this report was to provide:

A catalogue of information to assist decision-making by researchers, policy-makers, funding bodies and the organic industry.

This would:

• facilitate and identify research (including non-English language sources) applicable to the New Zealand organic industry, available for immediate uptake;
• facilitate adoption of organic land-management practices by farmers and growers that would improve the structure and natural fertility of soil, repair degraded soils and reduce nutrient loss, resulting in improved soil and water qualities and ecological sustainability.

At the time this project was proposed, access to non-English research reports was very limited. This report aimed to access non-English information; to communicate the available scientifically credible research results and information; to list printed and electronic sources of information; and to identify gaps and indicate areas where further New Zealand research is needed.

A key criterion for the scientific acceptability of a piece of research, which we have also adopted in compiling this report, is the acceptance and publication of a paper by a scientific journal. Most research listed fits this criterion.

The main focus has been on research relevant to soil, pasture and understorey management in organic dairy farming and orcharding. Much of this research is also useful for sustainable farming and integrated pest management systems.

An understanding of soil and water dynamics and functions in agro-ecosystems is crucial to land management. The maintenance of animal and crop health depends principally on maintaining healthy, quality soils and on the biodiversity of species in pastures and orchard understoreys. This is a preventative rather than curative approach to pest and disease management. Consequently, the report focuses on soil quality and ecology in the context of the wider environment (Section 2). Within this broad framework, the report then considers research specifically relating to:

• organic dairy pasture management (Section 3);
• organic orchard management (Section 4).

The decision to concentrate on these two sectors was taken to define the scope of the project, and because a parallel review of organic arable and cropping management research is already being covered by the SMF project undertaken by the New Zealand Institute of Crop and Food Research.

Part II includes:

• a section on research specifically on biodynamic practices, some of which has used new complementary methods in addition to the conventional analytical approach (Section 5);
• socio-economic aspects of organic farming that are less connected to our main soil- management theme but are important areas for the viability and sustainability of organic farming and that also need to be researched (Section 6);
• a case-study, describing research that was not completed due to lack of funding, illustrates some considerations needed when undertaking organic systems research (Section 7); and
• a section on water that discusses water-management aspects, including water supply and quality (Section 8).

Part III provides list of international organizations that carry out organic farming research, and information about New Zealand organic institutions.

The appendices include reviews of composting and Asian research, a short book list and review of two biodynamic farming books.

Most contributors to the project participated in searching for information, writing sections of the report based on that information, and evaluating the information and report for relevance and scientific credibility. The authorship of each section of the report has been maintained with a minimum of editing. Each contributor has approached the task differently, from a different background. We make no apologies for this as we believe it reflects the individual and diverse nature of the organic sector, with the diversity of each part making a valuable contribution to the whole.

Key Issues

A number of key issues have arisen in the evaluation process:

• sources of information: 90% of the research quoted is from overseas; in addition to the Euro-centric information there is also information from Asia e.g., effective micro-organisms (EFM) research;
• the paradigm shift accompanying organic farming systems is not widely accepted in New Zealand; therefore the methodologies for undertaking and evaluating research on holistic systems are lacking;
• not all the information obtainable from the current databases is appropriate for organic farming systems in New Zealand.

It is apparent that many books and reports published in recent years discuss soil ecology and soil quality from a holistic point of view, relevant to a better understanding of processes underlying organic farm management. However, there has been little research on more practical issues relating to organic farm and orchard management that would be directly useful for farmers. Organic farming relies on working with a large number of interrelated long-term living processes such as the many organisms and processes involved in nutrient cycling. These are not well understood and may be different and unique for each farm. Research approaches need to take account of the multiple variables involved in a whole ecological system (although restricted to a specific field situations) over long periods of time.

In Europe, scientists are developing new, complementary ways to investigate research questions. These include on-farm research in cooperation with farmers (participatory) and observational (phenomenological) methods. The Louis Bolk Institute in the Netherlands is a notable pioneer in this work. Such research can help farmers understand the processes they are working with so they can overcome problems. For example, an understanding of the life cycle and habits of a particular plant or animal pest can help a farmer change the conditions on his farm so that pest is no longer a problem.

Sources

Information was obtained from:

• on-line databases, e.g., CAB Abstracts;
• lists and databases provided by European and US organic farming research institutes;
• New Zealand and European organic farming research contacts; and
• books on organic farming.

Some key papers are in non-English languages. While the full body of literature on agricultural sustainability is vast, the references are mainly restricted to those dealing specifically with organic farming and/or taking a holistic, ecological approach. We have aimed to provide a selection of the most useful references to give a picture of what is available, rather than a comprehensive list. There is much older literature on organic farming and an increasing number of recent research reports and books moving towards a more holistic approach, dealing with relevant topics such as the ecology, biochemistry and biology of organic matter, humus and soil microorganisms; we have referred to a few of these books.

How to Use this Report and Search for Information

The report includes many websites and contact details for research institutes, all of which can be accessed for information. The references to research papers can be found in on-line databases. The great majority of these references can be found in CAB Abstracts database. Some were found in Biological Abstracts or the Web of Science. University libraries keep most journals in which the research reports are found. If a journal is not available, it can be accessed through the Library interloan service.

We found that the success of a database search depends on the key words used and how they are combined under the Boolean search system. These key words relate to the key words in each report. For instance "researching the functionality of soil life" has different leads, leading to different research papers: key words such as "effective microorganisms", "beneficial microorganisms" and "plant growth promoting microorganisms" lead to different papers but most relate to the functions of soil life. Libraries that provide access to these databases generally also provide information on how to search them.

Each section of the report contains references to journal articles, books and websites. We have also provided a list of books. Some of these are old and out of print. If you have difficulty finding copies of any of these books, please send an enquiry to the Bio Dynamic Association office (– email: biodynamics@clear.net.nz), which has copies of some and may be able to help you find others.

References

Recommendations

• A national research programme is required to gain understanding of agro-ecosystem interactions that underpin the sustainability of organic farming systems on NZ soils. This should include:

• studies to understand the dynamics of soil and ecosystem interactions;
• monitoring of results of organic systems; and
• practical solutions for the various regions of New Zealand.

• For research to be relevant, recognition of the ecological paradigm under which an organic system operates is required, as is the adoption of a holistic systems approach that recognises:

• the dependence of organic farms on biological activity (e.g., to supply nutrients to plants);
• that every farm is unique, with its own individuality, depending on the soil parent material, the environment, the farm’s place on the time/space continuum, and its socio-economic context;
• the emphasis on optimum and quality production as well as on yield and quantity of production;
• enhancement of functional biodiversity in agro-ecosystems as a key strategy for sustainable production (in contrast to biodiversity simplification that requires constant human intervention); and
• the interdependencies between plant and animal health, farm health and ecosystem health.

• New holistic research approaches, using complementary as well as analytical methods, are needed, such as:

• a participatory approach, working from the farmers’ questions, improving communication, mutual transfer of knowledge and sharing of research activities between farmer and scientist;
• an observational/qualitative (phenomenological or Goethean) approach in combination with a deductive/analytical approach.

• An increase in both expertise and capacity to implement these recommendations and create a solid framework of scientific knowledge on which the organic farming sector can operate efficiently through:

• a national research strategy with long-term, regionally relevant programmes;
• a multi-disciplinary organic research team capable of working with the new complementary approaches and developing and implementing programmes in the regions;
• a national research centre that co-ordinates regional efforts; and
• active participation of producers to ensure that research is relevant to needs and is readily transferred to on-farm practice.

We have identified the following specific areas as in need of research:

Soil Management

We recommend research that increases understanding of biochemical soil processes such as:

• nutrient immobilisation, mineralisation and humification in the context of organic farm and orchard management in New Zealand;
• the effects of various farm and orchard management practices on the flows of energy and nutrients;
• the net results of these biological activities;
• effects of biodiversity enhancement.

Such an understanding is crucial to maximise the nutrition of crops and animals, and to minimise leaching and volatisation losses, damage to soil structure and pest and disease problems.

Further development and use of basic soil quality indicators to monitor the effects of soil management and identify soil management problems in the context of the soil functions and development are necessary.

Dairy Pasture Management

The following questions, in relation to the New Zealand system of farming, are not answered by the current literature. For pastoral organic dairy farming to be economically, environmentally and socially sustainable in New Zealand, research in these areas needs to be undertaken.

• Soil quality under organic pasture management: Does organic management positively influence physical soil characteristics long term, e.g., the water-holding capacity of the soil in times of drought, or the susceptibility to damage occurring through animal treading on pasture in wet conditions?
• Pasture composition: Will pasture quality change under organic management? How? What composition dynamics are likely to occur during the conversion phase when conventional fertilisers are removed?
• Herbal leys: What is their value in New Zealand systems as an alternative forage (during drought, etc.)? What is their potential from an animal health perspective?
• Pasture/Soil Interactions: What are the key relationships? How is a healthy soil developed and maintained under intensive grazing pressure? How do soil/plant and animal interact? What is the role of trace elements in pasture production and animal health?
• Pasture systems: How much is actually grown in an organic system? How do organic dairy pastures need to be managed? Are grazing management techniques the same as on a conventional farm? How can a pasture system be managed so that it has minimal impact on the environment? How are pests, diseases and weeds specific to New Zealand controlled?
• Animal health: How do organic farms need to be managed to prevent diseases common in a pasture-based dairy production system?
• Effluent: What are the effects of organic farm management on the wider environment? Does organic management with no input of water-soluble fertiliser and decreased stocking rates reduce the amount of detrimental nutrient leaching into surface and ground water?
• Evaluating the literature on research undertaken in Europe on the different treatments of slurry and the methods and timing of its application onto pasture – are some of these research findings applicable to New Zealand conditions?

These are just a few of the questions that need to be answered, first to give farmers the confidence to convert to organic dairy production; and second to enable them to farm successfully and in a sustainable manner.

Orchard Management

The orchard system needs re-thinking in a holistic framework, through ecologically based research focused on understanding the dynamics of systems, and introducing greater ecological complexity into commercial systems.

In particular:

• developing a better understanding of nutrient flows in organic fruit production systems, in different regions of New Zealand and for different fruit crops, and their linkage to pest and disease interactions, tree health and vigour and fruit quality and yield;
• identifying which understorey management strategies work best for different parts of New Zealand and different production systems. Some useful work is beginning in this area, but it is not specifically focussed on organic production systems;
• developing greater understanding of interactions between soil and understorey management and other factors, such as: planting density, choice of cultivars or varieties, local climate and orchard microclimate, orchard biodiversity and pest and disease regimes;
• developing site-based solutions over longer-term ecological time horizons, that are aimed at developing organic orchard systems that are environmentally, economically and socially sustainable.

Research in Biodynamic Agriculture

Research should use complementary methods developed in Europe as well as analytical methods and focus particularly on:

• the production, storage, use and effects of the biodynamic preparations, in particular, the hornsilica preparation, on crop development and farm ecosystems in New Zealand;
• connections between the effect of the preparations on the plants and nutrition.

Whole farm biodynamic research is required in the context of the unique agro-ecosystems of the various regions in New Zealand. A cornerstone for such research is the application of participatory research approaches that draw together the knowledge of existing biodynamic farmers with complementary and conventional research methods.

New Zealand pioneering organic and biodynamic farmers and growers have developed their own systems and solutions, through observations, trials and in the absence of scientific research, researchers should collect and build on this experience.

Social and Economic Dynamics of Organic Agriculture

More research is needed in the following areas:

• New Zealand organic farm economic performance;
• labour use;
• community outcomes;
• public health, including effects of organic management on food quality;
• some aspects of market analysis.

There is a particular need for integrated whole-farm analyses, of multiple dimensions, including the different social and economic facets of organic farming, over a lengthy time span. (New Zealand has the necessary body of preliminary work to support such an undertaking.)

Organic Farm Case-Studies/Farm Comparisons

Studies should include:

• use of established methodologies that enable evaluation of the dietary and health effects of organic management on livestock performance;
• the externalities of environmental and sociological consequences of such comparisons as integral features of such research.

Water

Research into soil and water processes should adopt natural processes and recognise the importance of forests in stabilising water supply.

© 2002 Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association in NZ Inc.