 |
  |
|
 |
 |
|
           
Research Report Contents
|
|
A project facilitated by the Research and Development Group of the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association The organic alternative is a broad and very holistic procedure for restoring our overworked environment. When hydrologist Viktor Schauberger told us to observe Nature and then copy he defined the organic method (Alexandersson 1976). Nature provides the only yardstick whereby we can measure the success or failure of our actions. Since the Industrial Revolution we have constantly gone against the mechanisms of nature, and our environment is paying the price. Organic land use traditionally refers mostly to pasture, crop and orchard uses. Ostergaard, (1996) and IFOAM broke new ground with the inclusion of agroforestry. Forestry has not normally been seen as organic although permaculture has done much to change this (Mollison, 1987). The diverse, highly structured, mature forest produces the best supply and quality of water. Let us begin by recalling some unspoiled brook that we may have seen making its way through dark forest depths, now burbling over pebbly stretches, now pent up in quiet pools. It sparkles in the changing play of light that breaks through the screen of foliage above; it leaps in rippling wavelets, alternating between soft murmuring and silvery tinkling. It takes a meandering course among the trees, twisting this way and that as though to make its lively game last longer. Surely this water cannot be called anything but living. (Schwenk and Schwenk 1989). The natural habitat of water is the forest. Energy is "organic" if it does not impose adversely on Nature. Energy constantly moves between potential and kinetic levels and is part of the Universal system that exists in myriad of forms, most of which are not understood (Atkinson, 1989; Blake & Bacchus, 2000). School children have demonstrated that radishes will grow well if they are planted in phase with the Moon (Kerr & Marshall, 1997) and Rudolf Steiner's agriculture lectures indicate the importance of astrological energy in explaining soil health, plant growth, animal well being and pest management (Steiner, 1993).
|
|
|
|
Water is life but is it living? The nemonic MRS GREN reminds us that to be alive we must be mobile, respire, sensitive, grow, reproduce, excrete and eat (nutrition). Water does not meet all these requirements, but without it we die. Water is living by virtue of its role as the basis for life. By renouncing any form of its own it creates the matrix for form in everything else. By not meeting the requirements of MRS GREN it becomes the primal substance of all life. By not being materially fixed it implements material change, and by lacking rhythm of its own it creates rhythm elsewhere. In all cultures water has been held sacred as a magical transforming substance "water of life" (Schwenk & Schwenk, 1989). By virtue of its mobile, neutral and solvent properties, water almost always contains other substances. Should the human body drink only pure water (obtained by distillation), then the water will seek out body nutrients and deprive the body of essential resources. Water is as vital to the regulation of climatological and weather processes as oxygen is to the breathing processes of living creatures; without it, everything would become a desert. (Schwenk and Schwenk, 1989). Schauberger said the serious degradation in spring water quality was due to the demagnetisation of the water and the effect is like water losing its soul. The causes are removal of forest, excessive sunlight and the consequent overwarming of the soil. The springs dry up, habitats disappear and land-management problems increase (Coats, 1996). Essential natural cycles like water and photosynthesis are under threat. The water cycle processes 3% of available water to provide the global freshwater supply. Society has great difficulty in grasping the need for moderation of water use. Part of the problem, says Steiner, is the way we teach natural science in our schools which still has an anthropocentric bias. The water cycle is contained in the atmosphere that forms the life-support envelope around the planet. Its outer limit occurs where the earth's gravitational pull approximates the centrifugal force caused by rotation 30000 km above the surface. The Troposphere is the lower 14 km or zone of clouds, storms and convection, and is home for the water cycle. Critchfield, (1960) says the Earth's atmosphere is probably a secondary atmosphere evolving from volcanic eruptions, hot springs, chemical breakdown of solid matter and vegetation. "An interaction of energy, land, water, air and plant and animal life constantly uses and renews the atmosphere." Tomlinson, (1992) states there are 12 global weather systems and that New Zealand is located in the Southern Westerlies that are modified by the presence of ocean and mountains producing a diverse hydrology. Precipitation occurs when moisture-laden air rises, driven by solar energy, expands, and cools sufficiently for the water vapour in the air to reach condensation point. Nuclei are needed to create droplets that must grow if the rain is to reach the ground. Where no nuclei exist, the air may become supersaturated with water vapour. Failure to ignore the workings of the sensitive atmosphere by altering the concentrations of gas emissions i.e., oxygen, carbon oxides, sulphur oxides, halogen gases, methane and particulate matter is inevitably creating changes in weather and climate. Water reaches the land surface as snow, rain, hail and fog. Here it is either intercepted by vegetation and evaporated or throughfalls to the soil where it can surface runoff, evaporate, or infiltrate to recharge soil moisture and groundwater. Blake, (1975) studied ranges of vegetation for their ability to intercept rainfall from alpine herbfield/pasture, shrubs and large forest species. For shrubs and trees, the annual amount of rainfall intercepted varies between 15% and 40% of annual rainfall. Shrubs are usually about 20%, although dense stands of gorse will intercept 60%, pines about 25%, and indigenous species about 35%. A 40% figure for kauri compared favourably with a study done in Malaysian hill forest, which has a very similar form. The interception value is important when considering water yield, erosion prevention and shelter for stock. It also affects the growth of sub-canopy crops. The presence of a wet canopy is also important in controlling the movement of water and minerals from the root zone throughout the plant. Water reaching the stomata in the leaves through the stem xylem is transpired to the atmosphere when intercepted water is absent. Otherwise the stomata are temporarily closed. The transpiration rate may be 50% of the annual rainfall, and represents a substantial proportion of the annual site water balance. Soils are the product of biological and climate activity operating on geology. They are classified according to the size of their peds or particles ranging from the smallest clay, through silt to sand. The gaps inbetween are pores, and usually make up between 4070% of the soil volume. The pores fill with nutrients, air and water. When filled with water pores will drain until a minimal amount of water remains attached to the soil particles. Water is freely available when the pores are full but as it drains a negative soil water pressure develops. The pressure holding the water is greater when the pore size is small. Gravity assists this process. Two characteristics define soil water movement: i.e., the hydraulic potential gradient or force, and the hydraulic conductivity that relates to pore-size distribution and water availability. How these water characteristics vary can be shown by looking at three soil types a sand, a silt and a loam. When the negative soil water pressure is high, plant roots cannot extract water. The sand contains little water, whereas the silt contains 30% water by volume unavailable to plants. The loam is inbetween. If 60 mm of steady rainfall occurs, it infiltrates into the loam and the sand. However, the silt is well compacted with many small pores, and 56 mm runs off while only 4 mm infiltrates. After a storm, water moves down the soil profiles in response to gravity and capillarity. Most of the movement takes place in the first 2 days. In the loam, all the rainfall stays within the upper 0.5 m. In the sand, only 21 mm remain, and in the silt only 4 mm. This means that at an average daily evaporation rate of 4 mm, the loam has water for 15 days, the sand 5 days and the silt for 1 day. Water retentivity and conductivity by soils determines their ability to store water for plant use and allows soils to act as a buffer in catchment systems (Kelliher & Scotter, 1992) Groundwater rises and falls, changing the dimensions of the unsaturated rootzone. Streamflow is sustained by groundwater discharge to the stream, and the flow rate responds to catchment geology. Duncan, (1987) summarises the hydrology of New Zealand catchments. Land-use information is necessary for an understanding of New Zealand's water balance. The current state is:
(Rutherford et al., 1987) To assess the role of water and organics, we need to examine all land uses. In recent times some have become accustomed to heavy inputs from technology. To allow biological and environmental processes to prevail, the disruption to organics created by inappropriate technology must be removed (Niggli & Lockeretz, 1996) Soil/water/plant processes are vital for a global tree planting and habitat restoration programme to boost water resources the photosynthetic process, and to reduce air temperature. However, hysteresis means restoration efforts will not produce an immediate response and will follow a clockwise loop before conditions improve (Gregory & Walling, 1973). Permaculture offers a model on which to base a more balanced forested land use and improved water yield. Mollison, (1987) outlines the procedures and New Zealand farm forestry practice supports many of the concepts (Stockley, 1973). If 20% of a large property is planted in trees the crop yield will double on the remaining 80% of the farm. This was demonstrated on a Coromandel peninsula farm where 33% was planted in forest while sheep and cattle numbers remained the same. Forest Forests provide larger quantities of biomass than most other land uses but water relationships differ with forest types. Managed Pinus radiata forest and mature Kauri forest intercept 3040% of rainfall, and transpire about 6 mm/day. The kauri forest is likely to be growing on volcanic clay soils with a substantial humus layer. Moderate infiltration and high water retention would ensure a good reliable supply of high quality water to the streams. The pinus radiata sites are likely to have been more recently disturbed, and their soil profile will be less well developed. The humus layer will be less and, if the trees are growing on clay soils, the surface runoff will be considerable. However, if the site is on pumice soils, then surface runoff will be almost nil and infiltration almost infinite. While water flow in pumice may be far under ground, management of the forest may cause some changes to water movement. Top soil compaction increases surface runoff and reduces infiltration. When the forest is clear felled, the intercepted water reverts to runoff and is discharged as quick runoff and the amount may be a 30% increase in the first year. The exact process will be unique to each catchment. After careful logging (skyline hauling) shrub vegetation reestablishes, and by 36 years stream flow is what it was before logging. Sediment yields also return to normal over the same period. The water properties of forest species are an essential part of any sustainable land-use system, together with all the other forest attributes. Forest management must also protect the photosynthetic process on which all life depends. Long-term removal of forest will lower water tables and increase surface temperatures. Shrub Because of variation in form, shrub types may intercept as little as 15% and as much as 60% of rainfall. Gorse may be very dense, holding large amounts of water amongst the densely packed spines. Broadleaf species, in contrast, intercept little. Their leaves are designed with drip tips to discharge rainfall. Soils under shrubs are often quite shallow. Humus may be lacking but if it is present in abundance the water-holding properties of the soil will be enhanced and surface runoff will be reduced. Studies have shown that mature shrub stands (1012 years) influence streamflow in a similar manner to mature forest given sympathetic soil characteristics, although the runoff increase as a percentage of annual rainfall can vary between 10% and 30%, depending on vegetation form. Pasture Pasture species vary greatly in form, from tall tussocks and alpine herbs to introduced grassland species. The amount of precipitation intercepted can vary between 15% and 35% if plenty of biomass is present. However, where pasture is hard grazed interception is very low. Peak runoff increases when the land use changes from trees to grass because the detention of rainfall is reduced. The planting of pastured catchments with pine species can reduce runoff by 27% at year 10. For tussock catchments this is about 20%. Pumice catchments have shown a 60% reduction although this reduces to 30% as the pines age year 22. Pines yield a little more runoff than indigenous forest species. New Zealand studies tend to support the findings of similar studies overseas. (Mosley & Pearson, 1997). Pasture With Reference To Dairying Dairy farming usually takes place on lowland sites. Good quality water is required to water the dairy herd and in the milking shed, irrespective of the farming technique. The impact of dairy farming on water occurs in the paddock and the shed. Grazing and treading compact the site, allowing less water to enter the soil and more to runoff. They also alter soil physical and chemical processes, damage pasture, increase greenhouse gas emissions, and change soil fauna, according to Singleton et al., (2000). The severity of the impact depends on the number of stock present, and shoud standoff pads be available during winter wet periods pasture and soil damage is reduced. Surface runoff enriched by urine and faeces ends in depressions, drains and waterways. Stock in waterways add to the problem and increase turbidity. Infiltrating water enters the shallow groundwater that may be used for the farm water supply, and if it does not, it eventually flows into drains or streams. Non-point discharges refer to water movement in the paddocks. Water associated with the milking shed is refered to as a point discharge. Twice a day for much of the year washing water enriched with excrement must be disposed of, and this has been done traditionally by feeding to a pond. Hickey and Quinn, (1992) found ponds to be highly variable performers with no relationship between effluent quality and pond size, and high concentrations of ammonia and faecal coliform bacteria. Barkle and Wang (2001) modelled nitrate seepage from ponds and found the concentration in groundwater to be 6 mg/litre@100 m distance, 2 mg/litre@500 m distance and 1 mg/litre @1000 m. Unfortunately, very few ponds are seepage proof, and before evaporation can take place the effluent enters the water table. The prefered method is now to spray this organic resource onto pasture (Environment Waikato, 1998). The key water quality concern is the leaching of elements, particularly nitrogen, into the groundwater and waterways. Spraying of effluent onto pasture improves the pasture by providing water and organic fertiliser while an intact soil profile provides an efficient filter that strips nutrients from the infiltrating water. A Farm Design Model from Environment Waikato, (2001) details a range of water-quality scenarios. Six different management systems are considered, and the amount of nitrogen reaching the stream is assessed. System 1 is a typical Waikato dairy farm producing 40 kg N/ha/yr to the nearby stream. The best of the alternatives reduced the dischrage to between 1618 kg N/ha/yr. Environment Waikato has a major interest in the quantity and quality of water discharging from dairy farms, advises farmers on a number of techniques to protect the water and users, including fencing waterways, which are of even more benefit to the farm if planted with trees. Trees are one of the many rhythms necessary to achieve sustainable farm management (Neugebauer et al., 1996). The planting of species other than pasture can be a major method of stripping water of nutrients carried out for farms on a catchment basis. Other methods are standoff pads to rest pasture, management of stock numbers to avoid pugging, management of effluent from stock races, irrigation of shed effluent, and fertiliser control. Heatley, (1995, 1998) has compiled two comprehensive manuals on dairy farm and effluent management. The Dairy Research Corporation has shown that farm effluent is capable of providing 150 kg N/ha/year. Applying more than 200 kg N/ha/year of effluent or urea will exceed the recommended limit for drinking water of 10 mg N/litre. Exceeding this fertiliser application increases environmental impact and costs the farmer (Environment Waikato, 1996). The effluent is a dynamic biological and chemical resource compared with the chemistry of urea. Nitrogen is a carrier of oxygen in the pasture, however, too much creates an oxygen deficit that affects pasture quality and dairy cows their body temperatures are raised and calving is more difficult. Cameron and Trenouth, (1999) conducted/carried out a case study of farm dairy effluent management. The purpose was to assess whether desirable outcomes are being achieved at least cost. Cropping With Reference To Orchards Orchards, whether citrus, nuts, avocados, kiwifruit, pip, berries, grapes, olives or flowers are usually located on flat or rolling sites with soils that benefit from irrigation. Ample supplies of clean water are needed to satisfy the many irrigation designs. The increasing demand on the water resource is a problem, for many orchardists water is a finite resource. At the start of this article, we concluded that water is organic because water is life. New Zealand research in horticulture is now showing that applying water to crops in sufficient quantity and quality allows the crops to grow without many historical props. Because of possible restrictions, orchards need to use water efficiently to achieve optimum results (Clothier et al., 2001). If cultivation is involved on steeper sites, they should be contoured to minimise soil loss, conserve soil moisture, and reduce runoff. Orchard crops are watered from precipitation, irrigation, and capillarity, should the water table be near the root zone. Water applied can either be intercepted by the canopy, runoff, infiltrate the soil profile and replenish soil moisture, evaporate or transpire, through the plant to the atmosphere. Most orchard irrigation systems apply water close to the soil to avoid runoff and evaporation losses. Overhead systems may also be used for frost protection. In addition to lysimeter and energy balance methods it is now possible to measure water use by orchard crops using heat pulse techniques (Edwards & Warwick, 1984). For example in Marlborough on a hot sunny day with low humidity, small, medium and large olive trees used 3.5, 30 and 80 L/day of transpired water. On cool overcast days the rates are less (Green et al., 2000), and when the canopy is wet-leaf stomata and rates are close to zero (Blake, 1975). This type of data allows irrigation needs to be refined. Clothier and Green (1994) in their review of rootzone processes identified the importance of macropores in infiltrating water to depth under sprinkler and flood systems. Leaching of nutrients is less of a problem if "fertilisers" are first washed in, with a small amount of water, to allow capillarity to take the nutrients into the soil micropores. Work with kiwifruit has shown that plants rapidly change their spatial uptake of water in response to irrigation patterns. High frequency small applications of irrigation water are more efficient and kinder to the water resource. Work with apple trees has shown that 70% of water uptake occurs in the top 0.4 m of the root zone, which contains 70% of the fine roots, as is the case for many plants. If the water supply to the root zone is uneven, those roots where water is plentiful will compensate for roots in the drier areas. When irrigation is applied, sapflow response is almost immediate (Green & Clothier, 1999). Also of interest is the role of mulch, particularly for apples and grapes, although all crops would benefit. During the 1980s the use of mulch in Protea flower growing was rejected because it was considered to harbour undesirable organisms. Herbicides, pesticides and fungicides were considered inappropriate. HortResearch has now proposed contrary results as mulch increases soil moisture retention and adds to the development of the soil profile, soil temperature fluctuates less and the incidence of phytopthora fungi is reduced because of improved surface rooting. Calcium, potassium and magnesium are increased in the soil, and calcium and potassium in the leaves. Plant vigour and root density increases, while weeds become less. Blake, (1999) has grown Protea flowers commercially without using irrigation and conventional sprays. Main aids have been to mix varieties, use companion planting, apply BD500 and a chilli spray for chewing insects. A neighbouring planting uses a conventional spray regime and it would seem easier to adopt the organic method as a first rather than second choice. By observing Nature, scientists are finding that plants are more sophisticated than previously thought. They can protect themselves by physical means e.g., wax on leaf surfaces, leaf hairs, exudates, etc. However, when the first line of defence is challenged a surveillance system containing chemicals called "elicitors" responds the location of the invasion and sends warning message around the rest of the plant (Reglinski et al., 2001). Not to observe Nature and to use pesticides and genetic modification is to not understand the plant. Research into water presence and movement in cells at the University of Auckland is advancing our knowledge on how plants operate (Wiggins, 1990, 1995, 1996). The worldwide development of soil/water/plant restoration management systems is an urgent requirement and an important part of this is the relationship of precipitation to soil type (Bourguignon & Gabucci, 1996). The vitality of water to the concept of sustainable land use is well defined by Woodward et al., (1996) who insist that, for organic systems to succeed, health must again become the main reason. Land users must have the information to make possible a more equitable, healthy and genuinely sustainable world. The increasing scarcity of freshwater is a critical problem. Water Quality Water quality is difficult to define because it means different things to different people. Hoare and Rowe, (1992) make an interesting observation when they say that Maori are more concerned with the process water takes through the environment rather than what is in it, unlike the scientist. Maori developed the concept of Mauri by observing what happened in Nature. They lived by this, whereas most scientists analyse water by breaking it up to its physical, chemical and biological parts, which is contrary to the holistic processes of Nature and Maori. From an organic perspective, the aim is to achieve water quality that generally coincides with that set by Nature for the particular catchment. Maoris lack of understanding of water chemistry was not a problem. High nitrate levels, for example, did not exist and therefore did not concern them. If water supplies were drawn from fast flowing streams and springs, possible contamination would be minimal. Thermal springs would provide medicinal, bathing and cooking benefits and were not normally used for drinking. Maori had to work with Nature and developed techniques that were sustainable. Many lakes for example were named after their water quality. At a Pa site, three water qualities were recognised: wainoa = excellent water quality; waimauri = common use quality; waitapu = sacred quality. Eels played an important part in maintaining water quality (T Winitana. pers. com.). Close and Davis-Colley, (1990), studying the quality of 100 New Zealand rivers, found that while the range for each elemental ion varied greatly, the median concentration of the major elemental ions was lower than the world average, and very much lower than rivers in the USA. However, the water quality of a particular farm or orchard is dependent on the condition of its catchment. A catchment in forest but recently treated with Talon and 1080 to control possums may have a lower water quality. The number of possums may also affect the water quality. Natural water quality can also be toxic, though not frequently. Some years ago mercury was found in fish from the Waikato river and investigations showed it was a natural cinnibar deposit and not the Kinleith pulp mill supplying the pollution. Timperley, (1987) has reported on the water quality of New Zealand lakes. The major elemental ions calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride, sulphate, and bicarbonate show regional differences depending on proximity to the coast, lithology of parent rock and lake origin (fluviatile, volcanic, glacial). The Taupo volcanic zone, for example, has unusual water quality because of geothermal activity: trace elements include arsenic, lithium, boron, mercury and tellurium. Arsenic, mercury and boron are potentially toxic. There is also a high phosphate loading that derives from pumice and ignimbrite lithology rather than from farming. Suspended solids in low flow situations are usually less than 5 g/m3 (very much higher during floods) and the pH average is between 7.5 and 8.5, although in volcanic or forested catchments the water maybe acid with a pH of 4 or less. The amount of oxygen in good quality water is dependent on temperature and the plant material present. Plants photosynthesise during the day but at night continue to consume oxygen, and with a temperature drop oxygen levels may fall below the normal 5 g/m3 a similar scenario could happen in the atomosphere if we continue to use oxygen and destroy forest at present rates. Elements such as phosphorous and nitrogen are important for aquatic plant growth. Both are present in many forms. In most waters phosphorous is less than 10 mg/m3 and nitrogen about 40 mg/m3. Nitrogen, however, can be as high as 5000 mg/m3 and is a key factor in dairy farming. Rutherford et al., (1987) reported the presence of phosphorous, nitrogen and oxygen in New Zealand rivers. Pastoral farming and related industries provide most of the phosphorous, nitrogen and organic material entering rivers. The quantity is about equal to that processed by urban systems. Nitrogen and Phosphorous Loadings for Different Land Uses
Nitrogen Input to Pasture and Nitrate Leaching
(Rutherford et al., 1987) Nitrogen leaches from animal faeces to groundwater. Small streams rapidly process nutrients with benthic (bottom dwelling) nitrifying bacteria and filamentous algae. Throughout the year the hydrological conditions of these streams affect the quantity of pollution as well as the nutrient discharge. These small streams are processors rather than transporters of nutrient. New Zealand rivers have high rates of benthic mass transfer of nutrients and oxygen Rutherford et al., (1987). The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the river is controlled by physical exchange with the atmosphere, biological response loss and photosynthesis gains. Many organic substances can enter water and place a great demand on available oxygen as measured by BOD (biological oxidation demand). In clean water, the BOD is less than 1 g/m3; a rise to 5 causes concern. Milk, for example, has a BOD concentration of over 100 000 g/m3 and a small amount therefore, could adversely affect even a large river. Point Source Nutrient and Organic Matter
Units in one million population equivalents 1pe = 77 g BOD5/capita/day 1pe = 11 g N/capita/day 1pe = 1.8 g P/capita/day Metals are not normally present in dangerous concentrations in New Zealand water although mercury and arsenic can be significant in geothermal water (Smith, 1985). The many microbiological impurities that can enter water have been well documented by McBride et al., (1992). Light entry into water controls photosynthesis, and changes in temperature can drastically alter biota by changing oxygen levels. The biology and microbiology of New Zealand water are not well understood. Winterbourn, (1987) comments on invertebrate fauna. Fast flowing streams maintain an immature habitat in which it is difficult to measure competition and predation. Benthic communities are very resilient to large-scale disturbances e.g., flooding or logging when channel shape, cover and food sources are modified. Many species are endemic and have poorly sychronised life histories with long emergence periods. Predators include indigenous fish species that are carnivorous and non-selective feeders. Additional information on phytoplankton, zooplankton and habitat can be found in Viner, (1987). Natural sources of impurities come from the atmosphere, rocks, geothermal activity and swamps. Mans impact has been to change the land use from forest to other land uses and in so doing increases nutrients, decreases oxygen content, increases bacteria and raises water temperature (Timperley 1987). Forestry operations increase sediment yields from 100 tonnes/km2/year (Tonkin & Taylor, 1977; Blake, pers. com.) to 300 tonnes/km2/year plus (Fahey & Coker, 1989) in the first year but this usually reduces significantly by year 3. Sediment is not usually a problem on flat land but cultivated hill sites may produce high sediment discharges during storms. On hill slopes, nitrogen and phosphorous removal may also be high. Riparian strips can be very effective in filtering these elements before they enter the waterway (Smith 1989). Concern about agricultural chemicals entering groundwater led Close, (1992) to investigate 82 wells in areas likely to be most under threat. Pesticide evidence was detected in nine; two exceeded very conservative international guidelines; the remainder were very low. However, these results do not show that groundwater is vulnerable. Despite all scientific analyses water quality is pronounced good or bad if it does or does not meet a set of standards. Unfortunately, many people are not satisfied by this and claim to be able to assess water quality more accurately. Their hunch is more gut or holistic and difficult for the scientist to accept. Schwenk & Schwenk, (1989) described the "drop/picture" method: water samples are placed in a shallow bowl and treated with glycerine. Up to 30 drops of distilled water are added to the sample, and the ripple patterns photographed. Sketches of two drop pictures have been included. Sketch A is of water from a mountain stream in the black Forest, Germany. The water is high quality and naturally flowing, producing a well-developed rosette with a broad spread of vortex leaves. Sketch B is from the same stream but downstream of sewage and industrial effluent discharge. The drop disc shows a mere trace of rudimentary development with little differentiation. The formative capacity of this water is considered to be extinct. This technique provides a very sensitive and holistic way of assessing water quality. Water moves in response to what is in it and what has been done to it. Observe the Waikato river from Lake Taupo to the sea to note its response.
Alexandersson, O (1995). Living Water. Gateway Books Bath. Atkinson, G (1993). Astrology-Biodynamics and the Greenhouse Gases. PO Box 385, Te Puke, NZ. Barkle, G, Wang F (2001). Modelling the Effects of Seepage from Dairy Farm Effluent Treatment Ponds on Groundwater Quality. Lincoln Environmental, Hamilton, New Zealand Blake, GJ (1975). The Interception Process. In Predictions in Catchment Hydrology, Chapman TG and Dunin FX(ed), Australian Acadamy of Science, Canberra Australia. Blake, G J (1999). Proteas from the Peninsula. Harvests 51(4). Blake, G J, Bacchus, P (2000). Possum Peppering Trial on the Thames Coast. Harvests 53(1). Bourguignon, C, Gabucci, L (1996). How to Develop a Sustainable Agriculture in Temperate and Tropical Countries. In: Fundamentals of Organic Agriculture. Ostergaard TV (ed) Proc. Vol 1 11. IFOAM Conf., Copenhagen Denmark. Cameron, M, Trenouth, C (1999). A Case Study of Farm Dairy Effluent Management: a Desired Environmental Outcome at Least Cost. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington, New Zealand. Close, ME (1992). An Assessment of Pesticide Contamination of Groundwater in New Zealand. Geophysical Division Research Report No 238. DSIR: Christchurch. Close, ME, Davies-Colley, RJ (1990). Baseflow Chemistry in New Zealand Rivers. NZ Journal Marine and Freshwater Research 24: 319-341. Clothier, BE, Green, SR (1994). Rootzone Processes and the Efficient Use of Irrigation Water. Agriculture Water Management 25, Elsevier, The Netherlands. Clothier, B, Green, S, Neal, S, Caspri, H, Greven, M, Martin, D, Davison, P (2001). Sustainable Irrigation: More or Less. Proc Romeo Bragato Conf., Napier, New Zealand. Coats, C (1996). Living Energies. Gateway Books, Bath UK. de J Hart, RA (1991). Forest Gardening. Greens Books, Devon, UK. Duncan, MJ (1987). River Hydrology and Sediment Transport. In Inland Waters of New Zealand, Viner A B (ed). DSIR Bulletin 241, Wellington, New Zealand. Edwards, WRN, Warwick, NWM (1984). Transpiration from a Kiwifruit Vine as Estimated by the Heat Pulse Technique and the Penman-Monteith Equation. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 27: 537-543. Environment Waikato (1996). Nitrogen Fertiliser Use on Waikato Dairy Farms. Bull 1. Hamilton East, New Zealand. Environment Waikato (1998). Guidelines for Farm Dairy Effluent and Sludge Application to Pasture. Hamilton East, New Zealand. Environment Waikato (2001). Farm Dairy Effluent Treatment Systems Monitoring and Environmental Performance. Hamilton East, New Zealand. Fahey, BD, Coker, RJ (1989). Forest Road Erosion in the Granite Terrain of South West Nelson, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Hydrology 28:123-141. Fahey, BD, Rowe, LK (1992). Land Use Impacts. In Waters of New Zealand. Mosley M P (ed), Caxton Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. Green, S, Clothier, B (1999). The Rootzone Dynamics of Water Uptake by a Mature Apple Tree. Plant and Soil 206: 61-77, The Netherlands. Green, S, Caspri, H, Neal, S, Clothier, B (2000). Determination of the Irrigation Requirements for Olives and Grapes Growing in Marlborough. HortResearch Rpt No 2001/74, Palmerston North, New Zealand Gregory, KJ, Walling, D E (1973). Drainage Basin Form and Process. Edward Arnold, London, UK. Hawken, P, Lovins, A, Lovins, LH (1999). Natural Capitalism. Little, Brown and Coy. Boston USA. Heatley, P (1995). Dairying and the Environment: Managing Farm Dairy Effluent. NZ Dairy Research, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Heatley, P (1998). Dairying and the Environment: Farm Management Issues. NZ Dairy Research Institute, Palmerston North, New Zealand. Hickey, CW, Quinn, JM (1992). Of Ponds and Pats. Terra Nova 18: 54-55, Wellington, New Zealand. Hoare, RA, Rowe, LK (1992). Water Quality. In: Waters of New Zealand. Mosley MP (ed), Caxton Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. Kelliher, FM, Scotter, D R (1992). Evaporation, Soil and Water. In: Waters of New Zealand. Mosley M P (ed), Caxton Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. Kerr, A, Marshall, C (1997). Planting by the Moon. Harvests 50(3). Institure, Palmerston North, New Zealand Ledgard, SF, Selvarajah, N, Jenkinson, D (1996). Groundwater Nitrate Levels Under Grazed Dairy Pastures Receiving Different rates of Nitrogen Fertiliser. Workshop on Chemical Movement in Soil. Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. McBride, GB, Cooper, AB and Till, DJ (1992). Provisional Microbiological Water Quality Guidelines for Recreational and Shellfish Gathering Waters in New Zealand. Public Health Services, Ministry of Health, Wellington, New Zealand. Ministry for the Environment (1997). The State of New Zealand's Environment. GP Publications, Wellington, New Zealand. Mollison, B (1987). Permaculture 2. Tagari Publications, Australia Mosley, MP, Pearson, CP (ed) (1997). Floods and Droughts. Caxton Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. Neugebauer B, Oldeman, RAA, Valverde, P (1996). Key Principles in Ecological Silviculture. In: Fundamentals of Organic Agriculture. Ostergarrd T V (ed) Proc. Vol 1. 11th IFOAM Conf., Copenhagen Denmark. Niggli, U, Lockeretz, W (1996). Development of Research in Organic Agriculture. In: Fundamentals of Organic Agriculture. Ostergaard T V (ed). Proc. Vol 1. 11th IFOAM Conf., Copenhagen, Denmark. Ostergaard, T V (ed) (1996). In Fundamentals of Organic Agriculture. Proc Vol 1. 11th IFOAM Conf., Copenhagen, Denmark. Reglinski, T, Beck, N, Lewthwaite, R (2001). Natural Plant Protection Using Elicitors. Flowers. New Zealand, Aug/Sept 2001. Rutherford, JC, Wilcock, RJ, Hickey, CW (1991). Deoxygenation in a mobile-bed river. 1 Field studies. Water Research 25(12): 1487-1497. Schwenk, T, Schwenk, W (1989). Water the Element of Life. Anthroposophic Press, New York, USA. Singleton, PL, Boyes, M, Addison, B (2000). Effect of Treading by Dairy Cattle on Topsoil Physical Conditions for Six Contrasting Soil Types in Waikato and Northland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research 43:559-567. Smith, C M (1989). Riparian Pasture Retirement Effects on Sediment, Phosphorous and Nitrogen in Chanellised Surface Run-off from Pastures. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 23: 139-146 Smith, D G (1985). Sources of Heavy Metal Input to the New Zealand Acquatic Environment. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 15 (4) 371-384. Steiner, R (1993). Spiritual Foundations for the Renewal of Agriculture. Translated by Creeger CE and Gardner M. Bio-Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association, Pennsylvania, USA. Stockley, G (1973). Trees Farms and the New Zealand Landscape. Waddell and Sycamore, Invercargill, New Zealand. Timperley, MH (1987). Regional Influences on Lake Water Chemistry. In: Inland Waters of New Zealand. Viner A B (ed), DSIR Bulletin 241 Wellington, New Zealand. Tomlinson, A (1992). Precipitation and Atmosphere. In: Waters of New Zealand. Mosley MP (ed). Caxton Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. Tonkin, Taylor (1977). The Kelantan River Basin Study. Land Use Effects Vol 5: 75-109. Blake GJ pers com. Tonkin and Taylor, Auckland, New Zealand. Viner, AB (ed) (1987). Inland Waters of New Zealand. DSIR Bulletin 241, Wellington, New Zealand. Wiggins, PM (1990). Role of Water in Some Biological Processes. Microbiological Review Dec 1990: 432-449. Wiggins, PM (1995). Micro-Osmosis in Gels, Cells and Enzymes. Cell Biochemistry and Function 13: 165-172. Wiggins, PM (1996). High and Low Density Water and Resting, Active and Transformed Cells. Cell Biology International 20(6): 429-435 Winterbourn, MS (1987). Invertebrate Communities. In: Inland Waters of New Zealand Viner A B (ed). DSIR Bulletin 241, Wellington, New Zealand. Woodward, L, Vogtmann, H (1996). The Challenges of Organic Agriculture-Outlook for the Future. In Fundamentals of Organic Agriculture. Ostergaard T V (ed). Proc 1. 11th IFOAM Conf., Copenhagen Denmark.
Go to top of Chapter Nine Return to top of Chapter Eight Return to Table of Contents
|
|
| Home Page :
About Demeter : Maintaining
& Animal Health : Harvests : Calendar
: Demeter Food : Regional
Info Membership : Member Activities : Order Form : Return Home
|